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Pseudanthium

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**Concept 1: Definition and History of Pseudanthium**
– The term pseudanthium was initially used for flowers with stamens in two whorls, with the outer whorl opposite the petals or polyandric flowers.
– In the early 1900s, the pseudanthium theory emerged, suggesting flower evolution originated from a polyaxial configuration.

**Concept 2: Related Terminology**
– Synorganization refers to the collection of independent organs into a complex structure in botanical terms.
– Head, capitulum, and calathid are equivalent terms for flower heads and pseudanthia, particularly in the family Asteraceae.

**Concept 3: Plant Families with Pseudanthia**
– Pseudanthia are found in 40 plant families, including Asteraceae, Apiaceae, and Araceae.
– In Asteraceae, the capitulum or flower heads are pseudanthia, with ray flowers attracting pollinators and disc flowers for reproduction.
– Families like Centrolepidaceae have pseudanthia appearing as bisexual flowers, while Euphorbiaceae’s cyathia consist of a single carpal flower with staminate flowers in bracts.
– Myrtaceae’s Actinodium pseudanthium has fertile flowers in the center and showy ray-like structures outside.

**Concept 4: Gallery of Pseudanthium**
– Various images of pseudanthia, including diagrams of flower heads, common daisies, and other plant species like Hieracium lachenalii and Senecio angulatus.

**Concept 5: Research, Publications, and Studies on Pseudanthium**
– Research on flower development includes studies on floral structures, botanical evolution, and classification related to pseudanthium.
– Botanical publications and studies cover topics like flower-like structures in inflorescences, floral transition, and phylogenetic relationships in plant families.

Pseudanthium (Wikipedia)

A pseudanthium (Ancient Greek for 'false flower'; pl.: pseudanthia) is an inflorescence that resembles a flower. The word is sometimes used for other structures that are neither a true flower nor a true inflorescence. Examples of pseudanthia include flower heads, composite flowers, or capitula, which are special types of inflorescences in which anything from a small cluster to hundreds or sometimes thousands of flowers are grouped together to form a single flower-like structure. Pseudanthia take various forms. The real flowers (the florets) are generally small and often greatly reduced, but the pseudanthium itself can sometimes be quite large (as in the heads of some varieties of sunflower).

What appear to be "petals" of an individual flower, are actually each individual complete ray flowers, and at the center is a dense pack of individual tiny disc flowers. Because the collection has the overall appearance of a single flower, the collection of flowers in the head of this sunflower is called a pseudanthium or a composite.

Pseudanthia are characteristic of the daisy and sunflower family (Asteraceae), whose flowers are differentiated into ray flowers and disk flowers, unique to this family. The disk flowers in the center of the pseudanthium are actinomorphic and the corolla is fused into a tube. Flowers on the periphery are zygomorphic and the corolla has one large lobe (the so-called "petals" of a daisy are individual ray flowers, for example). Either ray or disk flowers may be absent in some plants: Senecio vulgaris lacks ray flowers and Taraxacum officinale lacks disk flowers. The individual flowers of a pseudanthium in the family Asteraceae (or Compositae) are commonly called florets. The pseudanthium has a whorl of bracts below the flowers, forming an involucre.

In all cases, a pseudanthium is superficially indistinguishable from a flower, but closer inspection of its anatomy will reveal that it is composed of multiple flowers. Thus, the pseudanthium represents an evolutionary convergence of the inflorescence to a reduced reproductive unit that may function in pollination like a single flower, at least in plants that are animal pollinated.

Pseudanthia may be grouped into types. The first type has units of individual flowers that are recognizable as single flowers even if fused. In the second type, the flowers do not appear as individual units and certain organs like stamens and carpels can not be associated with any individual flowers.

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